How did retro consoles handle graphics before modern GPUs?

Before the arrival of modern programmable GPUs, which debuted in the console space with the original Xbox, retro gaming systems relied on specialized, fixed-function hardware to render visuals. Early consoles utilized custom chips designed to handle specific tasks like sprite manipulation, tile-based backgrounds, and color palette management. These components were highly efficient at their intended functions but lacked the flexibility of modern architectures, which can perform complex general-purpose computations. The article explores the technical evolution of these systems, detailing how engineers worked within strict memory and processing limitations to create iconic gaming experiences. By examining the transition from fixed-function hardware to the programmable pipelines seen in contemporary graphics cards, the piece highlights the ingenuity required to push 8-bit and 16-bit hardware to its absolute limits, laying the groundwork for the sophisticated visual fidelity found in today's gaming industry.